And for Finite Subordinate Clauses...

[major_kerina]

Finite Subordinate Clauses
Overview
A clause is a syntactic structure consisting of two immediate constituents, a NP with the grammatical function of subject and a VP with the grammatical function of predicate. Clauses can be either independent or subordinate. Independent clauses are those that are able to stand on their own, and a sentence consisting of only one independent clause is a simple sentence as exemplified in the following:
(1) Phonology is the sound system of a language.
(2) A complex word consists of more than one morpheme.
Other clauses, known as subordinate clauses, cannot stand on their own as simple sentences; they must occur with independent clauses to form sentences, either as optional modifiers or as nominals within the independent clause. These clauses are also called dependent clauses because they depend upon being associated with an independent clause to form a grammatical sentence. For example, the following structures are clauses because they have subjects and predicates, but they are not independent:
(3) after the rain began
(4) that the students read
(5) whoever defaced the statue
Once these subordinate clauses become associated with an independent clause, acceptable sentences are formed.
(6) The game was called after the rain began.
(7) The articles that the students read were quite difficult.
(8) Whoever defaced the statue will be caught and punished.
The three sentences immediately above are examples of complex sentences, sentences that contain one or more subordinate clauses. They differ from compound sentences in that the latter consist of two or more independent clauses conjoined by a coordinating conjunction as in the following:
(9) Phonology is the sound system of the language, and morphology is the word-forming system of the language.
Finally, sentences may be compound-complex if they consist of at least two independent clause and at least one dependent clause:
(10) The German armies regrouped for the Battle of the Bulge, and when bad weather set in, they attacked Allied positions.
The example sentence above contains two independent clauses--the German armies regrouped for the Battle of the Bulge and they attacked Allied positions--and one dependent clause--when bad weather set in--making it a compound-complex sentence. The four types of sentences are summarized in Table 1:
Table 1. Types of Sentences
Simple Sentence a single independent clause
Compound Sentence two or more independent clauses conjoined by a coordinating conjunction
Complex Sentence one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses
Compound-Complex Sentence at least two independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses

From Table 1 above we see that subordinate clauses occur only in complex and compound-complex sentences.
Another feature of clauses is that they can be finite or non-finite. A finite clause contains a tensed verb group; all independent clauses in English have finite verb groups.
(11) The study of clauses is interesting.
In the example above is is conjugated in the present tense.
An independent clause can never consist of a non-finite verb group, a verb group that does not contain tense:
(12) *The study of clauses to be interesting.
Even though independent clauses in English must contain a tensed verb group and are therefore finite, subordinate clauses may be either finite or non-finite; the current chapter covers only finite subordinate clauses.
English has four types of finite subordinate clauses--the adverb clause, the adjective clause, the noun clause, and the that clause. In their internal structure, all finite subordinate clauses share a feature in common: Each type begins with a particular type of word, called a subordinator, that makes the entire clause subordinate, incapable of standing on its own. Adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction; adjective clauses begin with a relativizer; noun clauses begin with a complementizer; and that clauses begin with the subordinator that.
Although all four types of finite subordinate clauses begin with a subordinator, they differ from one another in the rest of their internal structure. Adverb clauses and that clauses have the form of independent clauses after the subordinator; that is, if the subordinator is removed, the internal structure of an adverb clause or a that clause is identical to that of an independent clause. In contrast, adjective clauses and noun clauses begin with subordinators that have crucial grammatical functions in their own clauses and that have usually been moved to the beginning of the clause from another position. For that reason, the clauses do not appear to have the form of independent clauses with a subordinator at the beginning. In other words, if the subordinator is removed, the internal structure of an adjective clause or a noun clause is not identical to that of an independent clause.
Finite subordinate clauses also differ from one another in their grammatical functions. The adverb clause always functions adverbially, and the adjective clause always functions adjectivally. The noun clause in turn can perform any of the six nominal functions that any simple NP can perform. In terms of function, the that clause is the most versatile because it performs some of the nominal functions as well as acting as a postmodifier of both nouns and adjectives.
Testing procedures exist for clearly identifying each type of clause and for ascertaining their grammatical functions. The three most useful tests are movement, deletion, and substitution. If a clause can be both moved and deleted, it is functioning adverbially. If a clause can be deleted but not moved to the beginning of the sentence, it is either a postmodifier of a noun or adjective. Finally, if a pronoun can substitute for the clause, then it has one of the nominal functions.
Finally, just as independent clauses can be classified by their main verb--intransitive, intensive, monotransitive, ditransitive, and complex transitive, so can dependent clauses.
In sum, finite subordinate clauses are syntactic structures that have a subject and predicate with a tensed verb group, cannot stand alone, begin with a subordinator, and occur in complex and compound-complex sentences. The four types of finite subordinate clauses differ from one another both in their internal structure and in the grammatical functions that they perform in the sentence. Simple testing procedures exist for identifying the different clauses, for distinguishing them from one another, and for determining their grammatical function in the sentence.
Types of Subordinate Clauses
Adverb Clauses
The bolded structures in the following sentences are examples of adverb clauses:
(13) Once the toothpaste is out of the tube, it is awfully hard to get it back in (H. R. Haldeman on Watergate).
(14) When women kiss, it always reminds me of prize-fighters shaking hands (H. L. Mencken).
(15) If you steal from one author, it's plagiarism; if you steal from many, it's research (Wilson Mizner).
Internal structure
Adverb clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions, the ones exemplified above being once, when, and if. It is the subordinating conjunction that makes the adverb clause a subordinate clause because the rest of the clause has a structure identical to an independent clause. For example, if the subordinating conjunction is removed from each of the examples above, the following structures remain.
(16) The toothpaste is out of the tube.
(17) Women kiss.
(18) You steal from one author.
(19) You steal from many.

Table 2. Subordinating Conjunctions
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as soon as
because
before even though
except that
if
in case
in order that
now that
once
provided that since
so that
though
until
when
where
whereas
while

Some of the most frequent subordinating conjunctions appear in Table 2 above.
Subordinating conjunctions may be either simple, consisting of a single word as exemplified by after, if, and because, or they can be complex, consisting of more than one word as in even though, so that, and as if. Both types, of course, function identically, and if one of the words of a complex subordinating conjunction is deleted, the sentence will become ungrammatical, so (20) is grammatical below, but (21) and (22) are not.
(20) The children ran as if they had seen a compassionate conservative.
(21) *The children ran if they had seen a compassionate conservative.
(22) *The children ran as they had seen a compassionate conservative.
You may now try the following online exercise:





Grammatical Function
Adverb clauses are a type of sentence adverbial; that is, they modify the content of the independent clause. They are able to do this because subordinating conjunctions are strong in semantic content; they establish the semantic relationship between the information in the independent clause with that in the adverb clause. For example, the subordinating conjunction if expresses a conditional relationship as demonstrated in the exchange between Mary Astor and Winston Churchill below:
(23) If I were your wife, I would put poison is your coffee.
And if I were your husband, I would drink it.
The content of the clauses beginning with if express a condition that will be met by the content of the independent clauses.
A note on writing. Because subordinating conjunctions are strong in semantic content, writers must take care to choose that subordinating conjunction which most appropriately expresses their intended meaning. For example, writers frequently use as and since for cause and effect even though their meaning is obviously better conveyed by because as in the examples below:
(24) As the stock market is currently in decline, many investors are getting out.
(25) Since the stock market is currently in decline, many investors are getting out.
(26) Because the stock market is currently in decline, many investors are getting out.
Of the three examples above, the third is by far the best because it begins with the subordinating conjunction that most clearly expresses the idea of cause and effect. Readers will understand the first two sentences, but the last is more cogent.
Other notable examples are evident by the use of while, a subordinating conjunction having the general temporal meaning of 'at the same time that.' This subordinating conjunction is frequently used by students for other subordinating conjunctions, such as although, because, or whereas. The meanings of the following two sentences are not immediately transparent to readers because the use of while leads them to believe that the information in the two clauses is related temporally; that is, the content of the two clauses is occurring simultaneously, which is obviously not the case:
(27) "While the principles for acquiring language are innate, children just don't start speaking a language right out of the womb" (from a student paper).
(28) "While the bilingual education programs in California were unsatisfactory to Unz, he designed the initiative 'English for the Children'" (from a student paper).
The semantic relationship between the two clauses in (27) is not a temporal one at all, but rather one best expressed as 'in spite of the fact that' and consequently should be expressed by although, which conveys that semantic meaning. In turn, the semantic relationship between the two clauses in (28) is one of cause and effect and is best conveyed by the use of because.
Punctuating adverb clauses. Writers are also expected to punctuate adverb clauses in a certain manner. If the adverb clause appears before the main clause, it is set off with a comma as in examples (29) and (31). However, if the adverb clause appears after the main clause, it is not set off with a comma as in (30) and (32).
(29) Where there's marriage without love, there will be love without marriage. (Benjamin Franklin) à
(30) There will be love without marriage where there's marriage without love.
(31) When a society has to resort to the lavatory for its humor, the writing is on the wall. (Alan Bennett) à
(32) The writing is on the wall when a society has to resort the lavatory for its humor.
Testing for Adverb Clauses
We can recognize adverb clauses by their internal structure and by the manipulations that apply to them. By internal structure, adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction followed by a clause that has the same form as an independent clause.
In addition to recognizing adverb clauses by their form, we can identify them by three testing procedures: substitution, deletion, and movement. Because adverb clauses are adverbial modifiers, an AdvP or a PP functioning adverbially may substitute for them:
(33) The runner started before the gun went off.
(34) The runner started too soon.
(35) The runner started before the signal.
Example (33) contains an adverb clause, and (34) and (35) contain an AdvP and a PP functioning adverbially. Because the latter two are adverbial modifiers, the clause for which they substitute also is an adverbial modifier. We can be further certain that all three structures are functioning adverbially because they all answer a question with when, a word that always elicits adverbial responses.
(36) When did the runner start?
(37) answer: before the gun went off
(38) answer: too soon
(39) answer: before the signal
The second testing procedure is deletion. Because adverb clauses are optional modifiers, they can be deleted from the sentence, and the remaining clause will be grammatical because it is independent. The adverb clause can be deleted from (40) and (42) and the remaining sentence will still be grammatical because it is an independent clause as in (41) and (43).
(40) Always be sincere even if you don't mean it (Harry S. Truman). à
(41) Always be sincere.
(42) No man understands a deep book until he has seen and lived at least part of its contents. (Ezra Pound). à
(43) No man understands a deep book.
The third test for adverb clauses is movement. Because adverb clauses are essentially sentence adverbials, they can appear on either side of the independent clause. If the adverb clause appears before the independent clause, it can be moved to the end as movement from (44) to (45) indicates, and if it appears at the end, it can be moved to the beginning as movement form (46) to (47) reveals:
(44) If men could get pregnant, abortion would be a sacrament (Florynce Kennedy). à
(45) Abortion would be a sacrament if men could get pregnant.
(46) Beethoven wrote the Ninth Symphony after he became deaf à
(47) After he became deaf, Beethoven wrote the Ninth Symphony.
You may now try the following online exercise:




At times, the movement of an adverb clause results in an awkward sentence, but that is usually because of the order of NPs and pronouns in the new sentence, not because movement is not an effective test for finding adverb clauses. Normally, pronouns occur after the NPs that they refer to; in other words, the NP is an antecedent. Examine the example below:
(48) If a man hasn't discovered something he will die for, he isn't fit to live (Martin Luther King).
In the example above, the adverb clause occurs first, and it contains a NP, a man, that is later referred to by the pronoun he in the following main clause. If the order of the clauses is reversed, the pronoun now occurs before the NP as in the example below:
(49) He isn't fit to live if a man hasn't discovered something he will die for.
To solve the awkwardness caused by having the pronoun before the NP, simply reverse the order of the two:
(50) A man isn't fit to live if he hasn't discovered something he will die for.
In short, movement is a good testing procedure for discovering adverb clauses, but at times it may be necessary to interchange the position of a pronoun and the NP to which it refers in order to enhance readability.
Together movement and deletion are adequate tests for finding an adverb clause. Because adverb clauses are optional modifiers, they can be deleted, and because they are sentence adverbials they can be moved. Of course, the same two tests used in conjunction are also useful for finding other adverbials in English. If a structure can be both moved and deleted, it is usually functioning adverbially.
Finally, many adverb clauses can answer constituent questions beginning with when, where, why and how, the WH words that elicit adverbial responses. For example, the following statement contains an adverb clause beginning with after, one of the subordinating conjunctions including before, as soon as, once, since, and when that contain the semantic feature of time.
(51) Mammals began to flourish after dinosaurs became extinct.
Because the adverb clause begins with after, it can be questioned with a constituent question beginning with when as in (52); the answer of course will be the adverb clause as in (53):
(52) When did mammals begin to flourish?
(53) answer: after dinosaurs became extinct.
The tests for recognizing adverb clauses appear in the table below:


Table 3. Tests for Discovering Adverb Clauses
1. Adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction; the rest of the clause has the
same form as an independent clause.
2. Adverb phrases and prepositional phrases functioning adverbially can substitute for
adverb clauses.
3. Adverb clauses are optional modifiers and can be deleted from the sentence.
4. Adverb clauses can move from one side of the independent clause to the other.
5. Many adverb clauses answer typical adverbial questions beginning with when, where,
why, and how.

Please complete the following online exercise before continuing with this chapter.



Adjective Clauses
The bolded structures in the following sentences are examples of adjective clauses:
(54) He is a modest man who has a good deal to be modest about (Winston Churchill on Clement Attlee).
(55) The last thing that we find in making a book is to know what we must put first (Blaise Pascal).
(56) In England the only homage which they pay to virtue is hypocrisy (Lord Byron).

Internal Structure
The subordinating word that begins adjective clauses is called a relativizer; the examples in (54), (55), and (56) above being who, that, and which. It is the relativizer that makes the adjective clause subordinate, and it is also the word that connects the content of the adjective clause with that in the main clause. A list of relativizers appears in Table 4. An important feature of relativizers is that they perform a grammatical function in their own clause such as being a pronoun, possessive determiner, or pro-prepositional phrase. Sometimes, however, the precise grammatical function can seem difficult to



Table 4. Relativizers
Relative Pronouns
that
who
whom
which Relative Determiner
whose Relative Pro-prepostional Phrases
when
where


determine for two reasons. First, relativizers are proforms--individual words that substitute for phrases, so we must be able to identify the phrases for which the proforms substitute. Second, relativizers frequently move to the beginning of their own clause from another position such as after a verb or preposition.
Using example (57) we can find the grammatical functions of relativizers by following the two steps explained below; in (57) the adjective clause is in square brackets and the relativizer is in bold:
(57) Many laws [that were passed decades ago] are no longer enforced.
Step 1. Identify the structure modified by the relative clause.
Adjective clauses are postmodifiers of a noun and all of its other modifiers, so in (57) the adjective clause modifies many laws. Because the relativizer, that, is a proform, the first step to finding its function is to find the structure to which it refers or for which it substitutes, its antecedent. In (57) the antecedent of the relativizer is the same structure that the entire adjective clause modifies-- many laws.
Step 2. Replace the relative pronoun with copy of the antecedent.
Once you have identified the antecedent, you make a copy of it and substitute it for the relative pronoun inside of the adjective clause. This results in the following structure in which the adjective clause has the same form as an independent clause; the copy of the antecedent is bolded:
(58) Many laws [many laws were passed decades ago] are no longer enforced.
Now many laws is the subject of the adjective clause, and because the relativizer that substitutes for many laws as in (57), then that is also the SV in the adjective clause. Given this basic introduction, we can now examine the grammatical functions of the different types of relativizers. You will see that in some sentences finding the grammatical function of the relativizer will take an additional step.
Relative pronouns. As discussed in a previous section, pronouns substitute for NPs; this is also true of the relative pronoun; it substitutes for the copy of the antecedent. This is made obvious by first identifying the antecedent and then restructuring the adjective clause by replacing the relative pronoun with a copy of the antecedent; the resulting structure will have the same form as an independent clause.
Adjective clauses occur after the NP that they modify, and this modified NP is the antecedent for the relative pronoun. To find the grammatical function of the relative pronoun in its own clause, begin by substituting the relative pronoun with a copy of the antecedent. Examine example (54) again, rewritten here as (59):
(59) He is a modest man who has a good deal to be modest about.
The antecedent of the relative pronoun is a modest man. A copy of this NP replaces the relative pronoun in the adjective clause as in (60), the copy of the antecedent appearing in bold and the entire adjective clause enclosed in square brackets. Note that the underlying form of the adjective clause now has the structure of an independent clause.
(60) He is a modest man [a modest man has a good deal to be modest about].
Now because a modest man is the SV of the adjective clause, so is the relative pronoun who because who substitutes for a modest man and thus has the same grammatical function. Once the relative pronoun substitutes for the copy of the antecedent, the original sentence is formed again as in (61):
(61) He is a modest man [who has a good deal to be modest about].
In brief, the adjective clause follows and modifies a NP, which is the antecedent for the relative pronoun. A copy of the antecedent is found in the adjective clause itself, and the relative pronoun substitutes for this copy. Up to this point we have only looked at an example of a relative pronoun that is the SV in its own clause; the situation becomes a little more difficult when the relative pronoun functions as an object in its own clause.
(62) The editor examined the manuscript that the author sent.
In (62) the adjective clause is that the author sent. The adjective clause modifies the manuscript (the antecedent), a copy of which must be found in the relative clause as in (63). Again the copy of the modified NP is in bold and the entire adjective clause is in square brackets.
(63) The editor examined the manuscript [the author sent the manuscript].
Note that the copy of the antecedent is the DO of the verb sent. When the relative pronoun substitutes for the copy of the antecedent, the following structure results:
(64) The editor examined the manuscript [the author sent that].
(64) is not an acceptable sentence because the relative pronoun is not in correct position; instead of being at the beginning of the adjective clause, it is at the end. English has a rule called WH Movement that moves relativizers and other WH words to the beginning of their own clauses, so the rule moves that to initial position as demonstrated in (65):
(65) The editor examined the manuscript [ ____ the author sent that].

The completion of the movement rule results in the final correct version of the sentence.
(66) The editor examined the manuscript [that the author sent].
The rule is not readily evident when the relative pronoun is functioning as the SV in its own clause because it is already in initial position as in (61). Adjective clauses in English have one other feature: When the relative pronoun comes from an object position, it may not appear on the surface of the sentence at all as in (67) and (68).
(67) Experience is the name every one gives to their mistakes (Oscar Wilde).
(68) The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious (Albert Einstein).
That every one gives to their mistakes and we can experience are adjective clauses is apparent because the relative pronouns can be reinserted into the sentences rendering (69) and (70):
(69) Experience is the name (that) every one gives to their mistakes.
(70) The most beautiful thing (that) we can experience is the mysterious.
As examples (69) and (70) reveal, English has an optional rule that deletes the relative pronoun from the surface of the sentence if the relative pronoun is an object in its own clause. Despite the missing pronoun, however, the sentence is still grammatical demonstrating that speakers of the language know that it is actually there. This 'missing' pronoun is sometimes known as a zero relative pronoun. That the deletion rule applies only to relative pronouns that function as objects in their own clauses is obvious because if a relative pronoun functioning as the SV in its own clause is deleted, then an ungrammatical sentence results as demonstrated by deleting the relative pronoun in (71) which forms the ungrammatical sentence in (72):
(71) A famous writer who wants to continue writing has to be constantly defending himself against fame (Gabriel Garcia Marquez). à
(72) *A famous writer wants to continue writing has to be constantly defending himself against fame.

A note on who and whom. Even though whom is a moribund word in English, many editors and teachers of English still expect writers to used it. Both who and whom are relative pronouns; the difference is that who functions as the SV in its own clause whereas whom functions as an object.
(73) Most professors who publish frequently work for research universities.
In (73) the adjective clause is who publish frequently; a reconstruction of the adjective clause shows that most professors is the SV of the subordinate clause since it is the copy of the antecedent:
(74) Most professors [most professors publish frequently] work for research universities.
Now because most professors is the SV of the relative clause and a relative pronoun has the same grammatical function as the NP for which it substitutes, who is the correct form to use since it substitutes for NPs that are SVs.
In contrast, whom occurs when it substitutes for a NP in object position:
(75) Good instructors learn the names of the students whom they teach.
The antecedent of whom in (75) is the students, and a reconstruction of the sentence demonstrates that its copy is the DO of the verb teach in the adjective clause:
(76) Good instructors learn the names of the students [they teach the students].
Because the NP, the students, is the DO of teach, the relative pronoun whom substitutes for it, and the surface version of the sentence is derived after the relative pronoun moves to the beginning of its own clause:
(77) Good instructors learn the names of the students [ ___ they teach whom].

Students should be aware that the choice of using whom depends on the communicative situation. The use of whom is a prescriptive rule that is reinforced in Edited American English, but even the educated frequently do not use it in their speech. At times in the evolution of languages if two words have similar functions, one will be lost. An example of this is currently happening in some dialects of American English with the determiners, less and fewer, the first occurring with non-count nouns as in less water, and the second occurring with plural count nouns as in fewer glasses. Many speakers will now use less in cases where speakers of previous generations would have used fewer, so sentences such as I am taking less classes than you are not unusual. This current usage is even found in writing as in this partial line of an article in the Bakersfield Californian (November 6, 2001, p. 2): "Less than 48...," and the signs in some supermarkets will say 15 items or less instead of 15 items or fewer. The point is that the expectations applied to the oral language and the written language are not identical. So what may be appropriate in oral language may be inappropriate in writing, but writers who do not use whom in writing are not necessarily producing ungrammatical structures; they are, however, violating prescriptive rules that normally are applied to Edited American English.




Relative Determiner. English has a relative determiner, whose, that acts as a possessive determiner in its own clause as in (78):
(78) The man whose house we bought was a doctor.
Just like a relative pronoun substitutes for a copy of the antecedent in its own clause, so does the possessive relative determiner with the added stipulation that that copy of the antecedent becomes possessive, so the reconstructed form of (78) is (79):
(79) The man [we bought the man's house] was a doctor.
The possessive relative determiner then substitutes for the copy of the antecedent as in (80):
(80) The man [we bought whose house] was a doctor.
Finally, the possessive relative determiner and the noun it modifies move to the beginning of the clause rendering the final surface version of the sentence:
(81) The man [ ____ we bought whose house] was a doctor.


Relative pro-prepositional phrases. English has two relativizers, when and where, that act as pro-prepositional phrases; that is, they are single words that substitute for entire prepositional phrases.
(82) We passed the house where we once lived.
In example (82), the adjective clause is where we once lived, and the relativizer is where. To reconstruct the internal structure of the adjective clause, a copy of the antecedent, the house, must be put in the adjective clause along with the preposition for which the house serves as the object as in (83).
(83) We passed the house [we once lived in the house].
To derive the surface structure of the original sentence, where must first substitute for the PP and then move to the beginning of the adjective clause:
(84) We passed the house [ ___ ] we once lived where].


That where really takes the place of an entire PP can be further exemplified by rewriting (82) using a relative pronoun rather than the relative pro-PP, where.
(85) We passed the house that we once lived in.
Note that when a relative pronoun occurs, the preposition in appears on the surface of the sentence; that is because a relative pronoun substitutes only for a NP, in this case the house, which is the object of the preposition. In contrast, where substitutes for the entire PP.
Grammatical Function
Adjective clauses function adjectivally; that is, they modify a noun just as adjective phrases do. More specifically, adjective clauses are postmodifiers of a noun; they must always follow the noun that they modify.
Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. Even though adjective clauses are all optional postmodifiers of a noun, they can still be divided into two classes depending on whether they help to identify the noun being modified or merely supply parenthetical information about it.
Restrictive adjective clauses function just like other restrictive modifiers; they limit the interpretation of the head noun. Examine the following sentence:
(86) The students who were late did not have enough time to finish the examination.
The restrictive adjective clause identifies only those students who were late for the examination, a subset of the entire group of students. If the restrictive adjective clause is deleted, the remaining structure is still a grammatical sentence, but its meaning is quite different. As displayed in (87), it is now all the students who did not have enough time to finish the exam, not just the ones who were late.
(87) The students did not have enough time to finish the examination.
In contrast, non-restrictive adjective clauses do not identify or delimit the interpretation of the nouns they modify, largely because the noun is already uniquely identified as in (88):
(88) Henry V, who was only 28 at the time, won the Battle of Agincourt.
In (88), Henry V is a proper noun and consequently already uniquely identified. The adjective clause merely supplies parenthetical information. If the non-restrictive clause is deleted as in (89), the identification of the previously modified NP is not affected at all.
(89) Henry V won the Battle of Agincourt.
Just as restrictive and non-restrictive clauses differ in their basic functions, they also differ syntactically. Restrictive relative clauses can begin with any of the relativizers, but non-restrictive clauses cannot begin with the relativizer, that.
(90) Barcelona, which hosted the Olympics, is in the northeast of Spain.
(91) *Barcelona, that hosted the Olympics, is in the northeast of Spain.
Both examples (90) and (91) contain non-restrictive clauses; (90) is grammatical because the relative pronoun is which; however, (91) is incorrect because the clause begins with that. In contrast, restrictive clauses may begin with that as revealed in (92):
(92) One famous book that caused a scandal was The Fortunes and the Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders.
Another syntactic difference between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses is that the relative pronoun beginning a restrictive clause can be deleted if it is an object in its own clause; stated differently, a restrictive clause can begin with a zero relative pronoun, so both (93) and (94) are grammatical:
(93) The first woman whom Henry VIII married was Catherine of Aragon.
(94) The first woman Henry VIII married was Catherine of Aragon.
In contrast, the relative pronoun that begins a non-restrictive relative clause may never be deleted; it may not begin with a zero relative pronoun as revealed in the grammaticality of (95) but not (96).
(95) Catherine of Aragon, whom Henry divorced, bore him five children.
(96) *Catherine of Aragon, Henry divorced, bore him five children.
Restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses also differ in how they are punctuated. Restrictive adjective clauses are not set off by commas as demonstrated in (86), (92) and (93) above. In contrast, because non-restrictive clauses supply parenthetical information, they are set off by commas as demonstrated in (88), (90), and (95).


Table 5. Differences between Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clauses
Restrictive Clauses Non-restrictive Clauses
1. Restrictive clauses limit the
interpretation of the noun they modify.
2. Restrictive clauses can begin with any
relativizer.
3. Restrictive clauses can begin with a zero
relative pronoun.
4. In writing, restrictive pronouns are not
set off with commas. 1. Non-restrictive clauses do not limit the
interpretation of the noun they modify.
2. Non-restrictive clauses can begin with
any relativizer except for that.
3. Non-restrictive pronouns cannot begin
with a zero relative pronoun.
4. In writing, non-restrictive relative
clauses are set off with commas


Testing Procedures
Movement and deletion are two tests for discovering adjective clauses. Because adjective clauses are optional modifiers, they can be deleted from a sentence and the remainder will still be grammatical as demonstrated in (98) by deleting the adjective clause in (97):
(97) The tools I need for my work are paper, tobacco, food, and a little whiskey. (William Faulkner) à
(98) The tools are paper, tobacco, food, and a little whiskey.
In addition, because adjective clauses are postmodifiers of a noun, they can never be moved to the beginning of a sentence unlike adverb clauses.
(99) * I need for my work the tools are paper, tobacco, food, and a little whiskey.
The basic ways of identifying adjective clauses are summarized below:

Table 6. Tests for Discovering Adjective Clauses
1. Adjective clauses begin with a relativizer such as who, whom, that, which, whose,
when, and where.
2. Because adjective clauses are optional constituents, they can be deleted from the
surface of the sentence.
3. Because adjective clauses are postmodifiers of nouns, they can never be moved to the
beginning of a sentence.






Noun Clauses
The bolded structures in the following sentences are examples of noun clauses:
(100) The instructor will not like whatever answer you give.
(101) My students didn't remember who wrote the poem.
(102) Truthfulness is what we expect from others.
Internal Structure
As is true of adverb clauses and adjective clauses, noun clauses begin with a particular type of word, a complementizer, those in examples (100)-(102) being whatever, who, and what. As was true for relativizers in adjective clauses, the complementizers of noun clauses perform particular grammatical functions in their own clause; complementizers such as what, who and whomever perform nominal functions; others such as which and whichever function as modifiers of a noun; more specifically they function in the same way that determiners do. A third group--how, when, where, and why--perform adverbial functions. Still others may have more than one function; whatever, for example, has a nominal function in (103), but in (104) it is a modifier;
(103) You can major in whatever you want.
(104) You can take whatever classes you want for your electives.
In (103) whatever is the DO in its own clause, but in (104) it is a determiner modifying classes.
The grammatical functions of complementizers can be discovered by reconstructing the noun clause so that it has the same form as an independent clause. For example, the noun clause of (103) can be reconstructed as the following with the complementizer in bold and the noun clause in square brackets.
(105) You can major in [you want whatever].
Moving the complementizer to its logical position in its own clause reveals that it is the DO of want, so the entire subordinate clause is monotransitive. WH movement then moves the complementizer to the beginning of its own clause so that the surface form is now realized as (106):

(106) You can major in [ ___ you want whatever].

The same procedure can be applied to (104), which will have the following form.
(107) You can take [you want whatever classes for your electives].
In (107), the noun clause is a monotransitive clause, and its direct object is whatever classes, and within the DO, whatever functions as a determiner just as the or these would function in a simple NP. The final form of the sentence is realized when whatever classes is moved to the beginning of its own clause by WH movement.
(108) You can take [ ___ you want whatever classes for your electives].

Because whatever is a determiner in its own clause, it does not move by itself, but rather with the noun that it modifies. The important point to remember is that all complementizers have a grammatical function is their own clause that can be discovered by reconstructing the internal structure of the noun clause.
A partial list of complementizers appears in the in the table below:
Table 7. Some Complementizers of Noun Clauses
how
what
whatever
when where
wherever
which
whichever who
whoever
whomever
why

Complementizers are a type of WH word, and they are moved to the beginning of their own clause by WH movement, the same rule that moves relativizers to the beginning of adjective clauses. Look again at example (102) repeated here for you convenience:
(109) Truthfulness is what we expect from others.
The underlying structure of (109) appears as (110); the complementizer is bolded and the entire noun clause is in square brackets:
(110) Truthfulness is [we expect what from others]
As revealed in (110), the complementizer, what, is the DO of the verb expect. WH movement then applies as in (111), which extracts what from its original position and moves it to the beginning of its own clause:
(111) Truthfulness is [ what we expect _____ from others].





Grammatical Function
Noun clauses perform all the nominal functions that NPs perform: SV, SC, DO, IO, OC, and OP as indicated in the six examples below:
(112) What you have proposed is absurd. (SV)
(113) Home is where one starts from. (T. S. Eliot) (SC)
(114) Many ridicule what they cannot understand. (DO)
(115) The relief workers gave assistance to whoever needed it. (IO)
(116) Drill instructors can no longer call the recruits whatever they want. (OC)
(117) In literature, as in love, we are astonished at what is chosen by others. (André Maurois) (OP)



Testing Procedures
Because noun clauses perform nominal functions, they cannot be deleted from a sentence without rendering the remainder ungrammatical, as indicated in the following examples, which are repetitions of (112) to (117), but with the noun clauses deleted.
(118) *is absurd
(119) *home is
(120) *many condemn
(121) *the relief workers gave assistance to
(122) **drill instructors can no longer call the recruits
(123) *in literature, as in love, we are astonished at
In addition, because noun clauses are nominals, pronouns or simple NPs can substitute for them. Again, examples (112) to (117) are rewritten to demonstrate substitution with a pronoun or a simple NP.
(124) This is absurd. (SV)
(125) Home is my favorite place. (SC)
(126) Many condemn it. (DO)
(127) The relief workers gave assistance to them. (IO)
(128) Drill instructors can no longer call the recruits obscenities. (OC)
(129) In literature, as in love, we are astonished at such a thing. (OP)
The tests for identifying noun clauses appear in Table 8:

Table 8. Tests for Identifying Noun Clauses
1. Noun clauses begin with a complementizer, which has a grammatical function in its
own clause.
2. Noun clauses may not be deleted from a sentence without rendering the remainder
ungrammatical.
3. Pronouns and NPs can substitute for noun clauses.

Now try finding noun clauses using pronoun substitution.



At this point, you should now be able to discriminate among adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses.




That Clauses
The bolded structures in the sentences below are examples of that clauses:
(130) Man does not live by words alone despite the fact that he sometimes has to eat them (Adlai Stevenson).
(131) There are some ideas so wrong that only a very intelligent person could believe in them (George Orwell).
(132) He has to learn that petulance is not sarcasm and that insolence in not invective (Benjamin Disraeli).
Internal Structure
The internal structure of that clauses is quite simple. They begin with the subordinator that followed by a clause having the structure of an independent clause. It is the subordinator that makes the clause subordinate. The subordinator does not have a grammatical function in its own clause because it only introduces the clause, and it is completely devoid of semantic content, being nothing more than a sign on the syntactic highway warning that a subordinate clause is coming.
Because the subordinator is devoid of semantic content, it can be deleted from most sentences as in the following two pairs of examples:
(133) Many professors fear that universities are becoming like businesses. à
(134) Many professors fear universities are becoming like businesses.
(135) Many teachers in the public systems are unhappy that standardized testing is emphasized more than teaching. à
(136) Many teachers in the public systems are unhappy standardized testing is emphasized more than teaching.
The subordinator of a that clause cannot be deleted when the that clause is the SV of the matrix sentence; (137) below is grammatical, but (138) is not:
(137) That the average temperature of the earth is rising is supported by valid empirical evidence.
(138) *The average temperature of the earth is rising is supported by valid empirical evidence.
If the subordinator of a that clause can be deleted, how can we recognize that it is actually a that clause? The answer is simple; just reinsert the subordinator. The example below has two that clauses, but without the subordinators.
(139) I'm not offended by all the dumb blonde jokes because I know I'm not dumb. I also know I am not blonde. (Dolly Parton)
To find the that clauses, simply reread the sentence and insert the subordinators at the appropriate point.
(140) I'm not offended by all the dumb blonde jokes because I know that I'm not dumb. I also know that I am not blonde.



Grammatical Function
Nominal functions. That clauses have at least three nominal functions in English: SV, DO and SC as exemplified in (141), (142), and (143):
(141) That so few Americans vote is cause for national embarrassment. (SV)
(142) Not enough people believe that the environment needs immediate attention. (DO)
(143) The marvelous thing about a joke with a double meaning is that it can only mean one thing (Ronnie Barker). (SC)
Postmodifier of a noun. A that clause may also follow and modify abstract nouns as in the following two examples:
(144) The belief that the earth is flat is now humorous.
(145) Few people understand the fact that progress in science is incremental.
That clauses cannot modify concrete nouns such as book in (146):
(146) *I read the book that you wrote the book.
In contrast, adjective clauses modify both concrete and abstract nouns as in (147) and (148), which are quite similar in content to (146) and (144) respectively:
(147) I read the book that you wrote.
(148) The belief that you have is humorous.
Postmodifier of an adjective. That clauses can follow and modify an adjective just as prepositional phrases can. Structures with this function are postmodifiers of an adjective.
(149) Students are happy that the bookstore is lowering prices.
(150) Owners of the bookstore are relieved that the students stopped their protest.
Testing Procedures
As described previously, that clauses may be recognized by their internal structure; they begin with the subordinator that, and the rest of the clause has the same form as an independent clause. Because that clauses have different grammatical functions, different tests are needed to discriminate among them, the two most important being pronoun substitution because some that clauses have nominal functions and deletion because others act as optional postmodifiers. Movement is not a viable test for the functions of that clauses because they do not perform adverbial functions.
Nominal functions. If a pronoun can successfully substitute for a that clause, then the clause has a nominal function. In the three examples below, the bolded that clauses have three different nominal functions: SV, DO, and SC.
(151) That truth is frequently distorted is obvious. (SV)
(152) Many people believe that the current administration is harming the environment. (DO)
(153) The tragedy of machismo is that a man is never quite man enough (Germaine Greer). (SC)
A nominal proform can substitute for each one of the that clauses.
(154) It is obvious
(155) Many people believe it.
(156) The tragedy of machismo is this.
In addition, a that clause with a nominal function cannot be deleted from a sentence without rendering the remainder ungrammatical as in the three examples below based on (151), (152), and (153).
(157) *is obvious
(158) *many people believe
(159) *the tragedy of machismo is
In sum, that clauses with nominal functions cannot be deleted, but a nominal proform can substitute for them as summarized in the table immediately below.

Table 9. Tests for Finding That Clauses Used as Nominals
1. A that clause with a nominal function cannot be deleted from a sentence without
rendering the remainder ungrammatical.
2. A nominal proform may substitute for a that clause with a nominal function.






Postmodifier of a noun. As is true of adjective clauses, that clauses can function adjectivally as postmodifiers of nouns. However, that clauses differ from adjective clauses in the types of nouns that they can modify. Whereas an adjective clause can modify just about any type of noun, that clauses modify only abstract nouns such as idea, belief, notion, illusion, and argument as in the following examples.
(160) The argument that cigarette smoke is not dangerous is specious.
(161) The hypothesis that aspirin can reduce the risk of heart attack has some empirical support.
That clauses functioning as postmodifiers of nouns are optional modifiers and can consequently be deleted from the sentence:
(162) The argument is specious.
(163) The hypothesis has some empirical support.
Because both that clauses and adjective clauses can modify abstract nouns, it might be possible to confuse the two, especially since both can be deleted and since both can begin with that as in the two examples below.
(164) The idea that you have is silly.
(165) The idea that the earth is flat is silly.
Example (164) has an adjective clause, and example (165) has a that clause. Both begin with that, and the deletion of both is possible as indicated in (166):
(166) The idea is silly.
What distinguishes the two types of clauses is their internal structure. The that clause begins with the subordinator that, which does not have any semantic content; the rest of the clause has the same structure as an independent clause. In contrast, the adjective clause begins with the relative pronoun, that, which substitutes for the copy of the antecedent in its own clause, the idea, and which appears at the beginning of the clause because of a movement rule. The adjective clause does not have the form of an independent clause because of this movement.



Postmodifier of an adjective. That clauses functioning as postmodifiers of an adjective are optional modifiers and can consequently be deleted from the sentence. If the bolded that clause is deleted from (167) below, the grammatical independent clause (168) remains.
(167) It is now clear that American cigarette producers willfully tried to addict smokers.
(168) It is now clear.




Deletion is really the only test to distinguish that clauses with nominal functions from that clauses functioning as optional modifiers. In turn, the postmodifier of a noun can be distinguished from a postmodifier of an adjective by the word that they follow. The postmodifier of a noun follows the noun that it modifies, and the postmodifier of an adjective follows the adjective that it modifies. Examine the following sentence:
(169) The fact that textbooks are steadily increasing in price is putting an economic strain on some students.
The that clause is that textbooks are steadily increasing in price, but we need to determine if it is a nominal or an optional modifier. To determine its function, first try deletion. If deletion works, and it does as in (170), then the that clause is an optional modifier.
(170) The fact is putting an economic strain on some students.
Now that we know that the clause is an optional modifier, we next need to determine if it is a postmodifier of a noun or an adjective. To do so, simply look at the word preceding the deleted clause, which is fact; because fact is a noun, the that clause is a postmodifier of a noun. The tests for recognizing that clauses used as optional modifiers are summarized below.
Table 10. Tests for Finding That Clauses Used as Optional Modifiers
1. If a that clause can be deleted and the sentence remains grammatical, then it is an
optional modifier.
2. If the deleted that clause modifies a noun, then it is a postmodifer of a noun.
3. If the deleted that clause modifies an adjective, then it is a postmodifer of an
adjective.

This concludes the discussion of that clauses, you should now be prepared to discriminate all types of that clauses from one another and to discriminate all types of finite subordinate clauses from one another.




Summary
As do all clauses, finite subordinate clauses have a subject and a predicate. Finite subordinate clauses have a tensed verb group and must be associated with an independent clause to form an acceptable sentence; consequently, they appear only in complex sentences and compound-complex sentences. English has four types of finite subordinate clauses: the adverb clause, adjective clause, noun clause, and that clause. The four types of finite subordinate clauses all begin with a subordinator, but differ in their internal structures and grammatical functions; testing procedures exist for identifying the clauses and distinguishing one from another.
Adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction, and the rest of the clause resembles an independent clause. These clauses function as sentence adverbials in that they modify the contents of the independent clause. Subordinate conjunctions are strong in semantic content, and they establish the semantic relationship that exists between the content of the independent clause and the adverb clause. Because adverb clauses are optional modifiers, they can be deleted from the sentence, and the remainder will be grammatical. In addition, because they are essentially sentence modifiers, they may appear before or after the main clause.
Adjective clauses begin with a relativizer which may be a pronoun, determiner, or pro-prepositional phrase. The relativizer always has a grammatical function in its own clause. Adjective clauses function as postmodifiers of nouns. Because they are optional modifiers, they can be deleted from the sentence, and because they are postmodifiers, they can never be moved to the beginning of the sentence.
Noun clauses begin with a complementizer such as who, whoever, and whichever. Complementizers also have a grammatical function in their own clauses--nominal, adjectival, or adverbial. Noun clauses always have a nominal function in their matrix sentence and therefore may function as a SV, DO, SC, IO, OC or OP. Because noun clauses have nominal functions, they can never be deleted, but a proform may substitute for them.
That clauses begin with the subordinator that, and the rest of the clause has the same structure as an independent clause. The subordinator is devoid of semantic content and does not have a grammatical function in its own clause, its sole purpose being to indicate that its clause is subordinate. The subordinator can be deleted from the surface of the sentence except when the that clause is the SV of the matrix sentence. That clauses can have both nominal and modifying functions in the sentences that contain them. Their nominal functions include SV, DO, and SC. When that clauses have one of those functions, they are obligatory constituents and therefore cannot be deleted from the sentence; and because they have a nominal function, a pronoun can substitute for them. When that clauses are modifiers, they are either a postmodifier of an abstract noun or of an adjective. When that clauses are modifiers, they are optional constituents and can be deleted from the sentence containing them.