Combo Marathon of Lectures!

[major_kerina]

I can just get through this...no more lectures!



The Functions of Prepositional Phrases

Distinguishing between optional and obligatory constituents

Prepositional Phrases as Modifiers
Prepositional phrases are always modifiers.
They restrict the interpretation of the constituent that they modify.
the house
the house with shingles
the house with shingles on the corner
the house with shingles on the corner of Oak street

Obligatory Kind
Some prepositional phrases are obligatory.
If they are deleted from a sentence, the remaining structure will be ungrammatical.
The conference is in the auditorium. (SO)
* The conference is
They put the books on the top shelf. (OC)
 * They put the books
Prepositional phrases are obligatory when they are subject or object complements.

Optional Kind
When prepositional phrases are optional modifiers, they can be deleted from a sentence, and the remaining sentence will be grammatical.
The track team was training in the park.
The track team was training.
Note that the second sentence has less information because it contains one less modifier, but it is still grammatical.

Functions as Optional Modifiers
Post modifier of a noun (adjectival modifier)
A prepositional phrase can follow a noun and modify that noun.
the book with the red cover
a flight into space
friends in high places
a short book about honest politicians
a long book about scandalous politicians

Testing for Post Modifiers of Nouns
Because a post modifier of a noun must follow the noun that it modifies, it may never be moved to the beginning of the sentence.
We all need friends in high places.
*In high places we all need friends.
The text on paleoanthropology is required.
*On paleoanthropology the text is required.

Because a post modifier of a noun is part of a NP, pronoun substitution can be used to discover whether a PP is part of a NP or not.
He met the professor of linguistics.
He met her.
* He met her of linguistics.
She saw the professor in the library.
She saw him in the library.

Practice
Determine whether the underlined PPs are post-modifiers of nouns.
John took a course on Victorian history. (post-modifiers)
The instructor taught the course in the evening. (prepositional phrase functioning adverbially)
The students bought some textbooks at a discount. (prepositional phrase functioning adverbially)
The other textbooks for the course were very expensive. (post-modifier)

Post modifier of an adjective
A PP can follow an adjective and modify the adjective.
The students were happy with their grades.
The President was pleased with the compromise.
Many people are angry at Congress.
Many other people are content with Congress.

Testing for Post Modifiers of Adjectives
Because a PP functioning as a post modifier of an adjective must follow an adjective, it cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence.
The students were happy with their grades.
**With their grades the students were happy.
Many Americans are unhappy about the war.
**About the war many people are unhappy.

Adverbial modifier
If a PP is not a post modifier of a noun or adjective, then it is functioning adverbially.
The students went home after the exam.
Dresden was destroyed in 1945.
I met my friend in the library.
The press was skeptical after the interview.
Note that PPs functioning adverbially can even follow a noun.

Testing for Adverbials
If a PP can be moved to the beginning of a sentence, or already occurs at the beginning, it is functioning adverbially.
William the Bastard defeated the English in 1066.
In  1066, William the Bastard defeated the English.
Dresden was destroyed in 1945.
In 1945, Dresden was destroyed.
In the summer, many Americans travel.

Not all PPs functioning adverbially can be moved to the beginning of the sentence.
If a PP occurs after any type of word other than a noun or adjective, it is an adverbial.
If a PP occurs after a noun, but is not in the NP, it is functioning adverbially.
They finished the work by noon.
They finished it by noon.

PPs phrases functioning as adverbials frequently answer questions with when and where.
After the Battle of Hastings, William started to consolidate his rule of England.
When did William begin to consolidate his rule of England?
After the Battle of Hastings.

The plane crashed on the northwestern coast of Italy.
Where did the plane crash?
On the northwestern coast of Italy.
Venice is on the northeastern coast of Italy.
Where is Venice?
On the northeastern coast of Italy.
(Note that the PP is a subject complement that has adverbial information because it has "IS").

Summary
Obligatory modifiers when (subject complement - intensive) or (object complement - direct object in complex transitive)
Optional modifiers when (post modifier of a noun - follow and modify a noun, same noun phrase [with pronoun substitution - never be moved to the beginning]) or (post modifier of an adj. - never be moved)
Adverbially (if it can be moved or already there to the beginning of the sentence and with when and where questions because they begin constituent questions. If it follows other than a noun or adjective)

Exercises
Find the function of each underlined PP
They ate lunch in the park. (functioning adverbially)
The book about Greek history is on the table. (post modifier and subject compliment)
From the mountains, you can see for a long way.
They put the manuscripts in the rare book room. (obligatory - OC)
The students were unhappy about the exam. (post-modifier)

Finite Subordinate Clauses (The Matrix Sentences...there is no grammar spoon)
Clauses within larger sentences

Like all clauses, FSCs have a subject and a predicate.
Unlike independent clauses, FSCs cannot stand on their own.
when the class is over
FSCs begin with a word that makes the clauses incapable of being independent.
FSCs have a tensed verb group.

Types
Adverb clauses
Adjective clauses
Noun clauses
That clauses

*Remember the Reading*

Adverb Clauses
When most college students graduate, they get a job.
The Union won the Civil War because it had a superiority in manufacturing and population.
Even though South Africa called itself a democracy, only a minority could vote.

Their Internal Structure
Adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction, such as
when because and even though
Name some other subordinating conjunctions (often confused with conjunctive adverbs - like 'however' which can't be moved)
If you delete the subordinating conjunction, the remaining structure reads as if it were an independent clause.

when most college students graduate, --->
most college students graduate
because the Union had a superiority in manufacturing and population --->
the Union had a superiority in manufacturing and population
even though South Africa called itself a democracy
South Africa called itself a democracy

Adverb clauses modify the independent clauses with which they are associated.
They do so because of the subordinating conjunction.

The subordinating conjunction establishes the semantic relationship between the content of the adverb clause and the main clause.
For example, the subordinating conjunction if expresses a conditional relationship:
If I were your wife, I would put poison is your coffee.
And if I were your husband, I would drink it.
(exchange between Mary Astor and Winston Churchill)

Choosing the Correct Coordinating Conjunction in Writing
Because subordinating conjunctions are strong in semantic content, writers must choose the one best expressing the intended meaning.
Young writers frequently use such subordinating conjunctions as since and as for cause and effect (the true one is "because").

The sentences are strengthened by using because:
As the stock market is currently in decline, many investors are getting out.
Since the stock market is currently in decline, many investors are getting out.
Because the stock market is currently in decline, many investors are getting out.

Because adverb clauses are adverbials, they can answer such adverbial questions as when and why.
After the stock market crashed in 1929, the United States entered a depression.
When did the United States enter a depression?
After the stock market crashed in 1929.
Because early prehistoric settlers over hunted, the horse became extinct in the Americas.
Why did the horse come extinct in the Americas?
Because early prehistoric settlers over hunted.

Testing
Because adverb clauses are optional modifiers, they can be deleted from a sentence.
If you arrive early, we can study together.
We can study together.
Because these clauses function adverbially, they can be moved around the main clause.
We can study together if you arrive early.

Exercise
Find the adverb clause in each sentence.
Before you can receive a license, you have to pass two examinations.
Even though few people know it, many Chilean wines are both good and inexpensive.
Hurricanes are worse than tornadoes because hurricanes can have tornadoes inside of them.
While you were outside, someone called.

Adjective Clauses - Post-Modifiers of a Noun

Examples
The writer who sent the manuscript is a professor of Victorian history.
I read the book that you didn’t like.
The students who received the lowest grades complained.

The Function of Relative Clauses
Relative clauses function adjectivally; they modify the head noun of a NP.
They are post-modifiers of a noun.
The man who was shot  just robbed a bank
Though the clause must follow the noun, it need not always follow immediately.
The man in the green hat who was shot  just robbed a bank

Adj Clauses and Pronoun Subs.
Because adjective clauses are post-modifiers of nouns, a pronoun may be substituted for the entire NP.
The people (who designed the test) were fired.
They were fired.
We met the instructors (who were teaching the course).
We met them.

Testing
Because adjective clauses are optional modifiers, they can be deleted.
He ruined the soup that he tried to make.
He ruined the soup.
Because adjective clauses are post-modifiers, they can never be moved to initial position.
*That he tried to make he ruined the soup.

Internal Structure
Adjective clauses begin with a relativizer.
Relative pronouns
who  whom  which  that
Relative determiner
whose
Relative adverbs
where  when

Grammatical Function of Relative Pronouns
Relativizers have a grammatical function in their own clause.
As do all pronouns, relative pronouns substitute for a NP, and they have the same grammatical function as the NP for which they substitute.
The NP for which the relative pronoun substitutes is a copy of the antecedent.

The Antecedent
The noun, and all of its other modifiers, that the adjective clause modifies is called the antecedent.
The man who was shot just robbed a bank.
The man in the green hat who was shot  just robbed a bank.
The concept of antecedent is very important for understanding the internal structure of the adjective clause.

Finding the Function of the Relative Pronoun
To find the grammatical function of a relative pronoun, reconstruct the adjective clause by putting a copy of the antecedent into the clause and removing the relative pronoun.
The reconstructed adjective clause will now look like an independent clause.

I enjoyed {the article} [that you wrote] ---> that
[you wrote the article]
The article is the DO of  the adj. clause.
Therefore, that--the relative pronoun for the article--is also the DO in its own clause.
Note that it is the copy of the antecedent which becomes relativized and then moved to the front of the adjective clause.

Practice
Find the grammatical function of each relative pronoun.  Work together.  Don’t look at the answers.
The course [that he teaches] is full. = He teaches the course =
I met the person who wrote the article. who = SV
The movie which Tom saw was awful. which = DO
The doctor whom we met was a surgeon.

Thanks for going from hand holding to insanely complex in one sudden step X_X...I still need to read the 40 page thing.

End of Practice - We’s been relativized (his words)

More on Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun can be deleted if it is an object in its own clause. Object position.
The book that Tom wrote is awful.
The book Tom wrote is awful.
This “missing” pronoun is called a zero relative pronoun, and it still has a grammatical function.  In the sentence above it is a direct object.

The Other Relatives Words
Whose is always a relative possessive determiner in its own clause.
The writer whose book we rejected wrote a defamatory letter.
The reconstructed relative clause is (stays possessive because 'whose' is)
we rejected the writer’s book --->
we rejected whose book --->
whose book we rejected

The relatives when and where are relative prepositional phrases in their own clauses.
The house where Lincoln was born was made into a museum.
The reconstructed relative clause is
Lincoln was born in the house --->
Lincoln was born where --->
where Lincoln was born

That where is a relative prepositional phrase can be proven by using a relative pronoun instead of where.
The house that Lincoln was born in is a museum
When a relative pronoun is used, the preposition in surfaces in the sentence (to convey locationality, I guess).
The relative pronoun is the object of the preposition.

Practice
Decide whether the following sentences have an adjective or adverb clause.
We go to the store when we need food. (adv. it can move)
I remember the year when you were born. (adj. can't move modifies the year...we can sub with 'I remember that')
The children were frightened after they saw the movie. (adv. - movement works)
The students had to read an article that their instructor wrote. (adj - can't move - it can be subbed too - The students to read it.)

Noun Clauses
Clauses that can have the same functions as simple NPs

Their Functions
Noun clauses are NP substitutes.
They appear in the same positions as simple noun phrases.
They can have the same grammatical functions.
Can be...
SV DO IO
SC OP OC

Examples
What I do is my business. SV
They don’t know what they should do.  DO
The Red Cross gave assistance to whoever needed it.  IO
You can be whatever you want.  SC
The books are for whoever wants them. OP
They called him whatever they wanted. OC

Internal Structure of Noun Clauses
Noun clauses begin with a complementizer.
what whoever whomever
whatever whichever
Complementizers have a grammatical function in their own clause.
Usually, but not always they have a nominal function (DO IO within the clause).

What I do is my business.
what is a DO in its own clause.
They don’t know what they should do.
What is a DO in its own clause.
The Red Cross gave assistance to whoever needed it.
Whoever is a SV in its own clause.

You can be whatever you want.
Whatever is a DO in its own clause.
The books are for whoever wants them.
Whoever is a SV in its own clause.
They called him whatever they wanted.
Whatever is a DO in its own clause.

Tests of Recognition
Because noun clauses have a nominal function in the matrix sentence, they cannot be moved.
Because noun clauses have a nominal function in the matrix sentence, they cannot be deleted.
Because noun clauses have a nominal function in the matrix sentence, pronouns can substitute for them.

Practice
Find the function of each noun clause in the sentences below; don’t look at the answers.
I’ll eat (whatever you want). DO
The students didn’t understand (what he said). DO
(Whatever solution is proposed) will be rejected. SV and in the matrix - a determiner
We can give these clothes to (whoever wants them). IO - SV in the clause
She gives her children (whatever they want). DO - DO in the clause 

Summarizing Tests of Recognition

+Deletion+
Adjective clauses (optional modifiers)
Adverb clauses (both are)

+Movement+
Adverb clauses (adverbial modifiers can be moved)

+Pronoun Substitution+
Noun clauses (because they are a type of nominal)

LAST LECTURE! REVIEW!!!!!
----
Identifying Grammatical Functions
Applying Manipulations

What You Do Not Know
English has many syntactic structures that cannot be covered in an introductory course.
The sentence below, for example, has a headless infinitive clause.
Tom needs to buy his textbook.
Even though you do not know its name, you know that it is a NP substitute.

What You Do Know
From the study of syntax you know that constituents of sentences can be manipulated in different ways depending upon their grammatical function.
The three major manipulations are movement, deletion, and substitution.

Optional constituents can be deleted from a sentence and the sentence will still be grammatical.
The students cheered when the course ended.
The students cheered.
When the course ended is an optional constituent.

Optional constituents are usually modifiers:
Adverbials.
Post modifiers of nouns.
Post modifiers of adjectives.

Obligatory constituents cannot be deleted from a sentence;  the sentence will become ungrammatical.
To vote in elections is a duty.
*is a duty.
To vote in elections is an obligatory constituent because it cannot be deleted.

Obligatory constituents are usually NPs and NP substitutes.
They are any structure that have one of the typical NP functions:
SV   SC
DO   IO
OC   OP

Using Manipulations
Manipulations can be used to distinguish adverbials, post modifiers of nouns, post modifiers of adjectives, and NP substitutes from one another.
Different configurations of manipulations can be used to distinguish the four groups just mentioned.

Testing for Adverbials
Because constituents functioning adverbially are generally optional modifiers, they can be deleted.
To understand syntax, students have to manipulate constituents.
Students have to manipulate constituents.

In addition, constituents functioning adverbially can normally be moved.
To understand syntax, students have to manipulate constituents.
Students have to manipulate constituents to understand syntax.

Testing for Post-Modifiers
Because constituents functioning as post modifiers of nouns are optional modifiers, they can be deleted.
St. Croix is a good place to take a vacation.
St. Croix is a good place. (must be optional modifier...what else?)

Post modifiers of nouns cannot be moved to the front.
St. Croix is a good place to take a vacation.
* To take a vacation St. Croix is a good place. (Must be a post modifier)

Testing for Post-Modifiers of Adjectives
Because post modifiers of adjectives contain optional information, they can be deleted from the sentence.
Intellectually active people are eager to learn new concepts.
Intellectually active people are eager.

Because post modifiers of adjective must follow the word that they modify, they cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence.
Intellectually active people are eager to learn new concepts.
*To learn new concepts intellectually active people are eager.

Testing for NP Substitutes
Because NP substitutes have the same functions as NPs, pronouns can substitute for them.
Preparing a conference is a lot of work.
It is a lot of work.
The Italian government considered repairing the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
The Italian government considered it.

Because NP substitutes are obligatory constituents, they cannot be deleted from a sentence.
Preparing a conference is a lot of work.
*is a lot of work.
The Italian government considered repairing the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
*The Italian government considered.

Summarizing Tests of Recognition

+Deletion+
Post modifier of a noun
Post modifier of an adjective
Adverbial

+Movement+
Adverbial

+Pronoun Substitution+
Noun phrase substitute

Each sentence on the following slide has an underlined constituent.  Decide if the underlined constituent is a post modifier of a noun, a post modifier of an adjective, an adverbial, or a noun phrase substitute.

Many students enjoy studying in the library. (DO - participial)
While examining the manuscript, the editor found many errors. (Adverbially)
A good course for prospective teachers to take is sociolinguistics. (post modifier of the noun)
The doctors treated the man bitten by the black mamba. (post modifier of a noun)
Most people are happy to go on vacation. (post modifier of an adjective)